Today’s school environments are increasingly diverse and complex. This diversity is shaped by the interplay of factors, such as nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, migration backgrounds, physical and learning disabilities, gender differences, and local traditions (Juvonen et al., 2019; Vertovec, 2007, 2010).

Despite long-standing evidence of the social, academic and cognitive benefits of such heterogeneous environments (e.g., Gabaldón-Estevan, 2020; Odom et al., 2011), discrimination, marginalisation and social exclusion remain common, particularly affecting students from vulnerable groups – for example, ethnic minorities, migrants, and pupils with disabilities (Hes & Švecová, 2021; Juvonen et al., 2019).

To address the challenges of this complexity, it is important to foster a range of attitudes and abilities, including flexibility, contextual awareness, and exploratory thinking. Especially valuable is what has been termed “complex thinking” – the ability to understand and examine interconnected aspects of reality while avoiding simplistic or stereotypical judgments (Hargreaves, 2003; Olimpo, 2010).

Among these abilities, critical consciousness plays a key role. It refers to the capacity to examine school environments, identify the factors that contribute to social exclusion, and actively promote change towards more inclusive practices (Diemer et al., 2010; Urbani et al., 2022). Originally conceptualised by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1970), critical consciousness is particularly relevant in today’s educational settings. It enables young people to recognise how oppressive systems – including education itself – can sustain and reproduce inequality through implicit biases and prejudices and understand how individual and collective actions can challenge these mechanisms (Urbani et al., 2022).

This capacity is valuable not only for individuals in vulnerable or marginalised positions, but for everyone. It increases awareness of how exclusion appears and encourages action to support social justice in education (Gonzales et al., 2022).

Critical consciousness consists of three interconnected components, which should be nurtured in a complementary way within educational settings (Heberle et al., 2020):

1. Critical reflection – awareness of the contextual factors that underpin injustice within learning environments.
2. Critical motivation – the personal belief in one’s capacity to contribute to change, individually and collectively.
3. Critical action – engaging in activities that promote structural changes in schools to support the inclusion of all learners (Watts et al., 2003; Urbani et al., 2022).

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